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《崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡》第二章

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普通读者如果想对复活节岛有个大概的认识,可从下面三本书着手:John Flenley与Paul Bahn合著的The Enigmas of Easter Island(New York:Oxford University Press, 2003),这本书的旧版是Easter Island, Earth Island(London:Thames and Hudson, 1992);还有Jo Anne Van Tilburg写的Easter Island:Archaeology,Ecology, and Culture(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994)和Among Stone Giants(New York:Scribner, 2003)。最后要提及的书是Katherine Routledge写的自传,这位伟大的英国考古学家在1914—1915年到复活节岛采访岛民,记录了岛民记忆中最后的奥隆戈宗教仪式。她的一生宛如一本精彩纷呈的小说。

近年来出版的和复活节岛相关的书还有以下两本:Catherine 和Michel Orliac合著的The Silent Gods:Mysteries of Easter Island(London:Thames and Hudson, 1995), 还有John Loret和John Tancredi共同编辑的Easter Island:Scientific Exploration into the World's Environmental Problems in Microcosm(New York:Kluwer/Plenum, 2003),书中有13个章节论述了近年来科学家们在岛上考察的结果。此外,对复活节岛有浓厚兴趣的人还可以参阅两本出版较早的经典著作:Katherine Routledge写的The Mystery of Easter Island(London:Sifton Praed, 1919, reprinted by Adventure Unlimited Press, Kempton, Ⅲ, 1998), 以及Alfred Métraux写的Ethnology of Easter Island(Honolulu:Bishop Museum Bullentin 160, 1940, reprinted 1971)。此外,Eric Kjellgren编辑的Splendid Isolation:Art of Easter Island(New York:Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001)收录了十几张照片,很多是彩图,有复活节岛的石雕、朗格朗格板、穆埃·卡瓦卡瓦的小雕像、穿树皮布的人,还有红羽毛做的头饰,红色石帽普卡奥的灵感也许正来源于此。

Jo Anne Van Tilburg的论文包括“Easter Island(Rapa Nui)archaeology since 1955:some thoughts on progress, problems and potential,”pp.555-577,收录于J.M.Davidson等人编辑的Oceanic Culture History:Essays in Honour of Roger Green(New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, 1996);她和Cristián Arévalo Pakarati合写的“The Rapanui carvers’perspective:notes and observations on the experimental replication of monolithic sculpture(moai),”被收录在A.Herle等人编辑的Pacific Art:Persistence, Change and Meaning(Bathurst, Australia:Crawford House, 2002)一书中;她与Ted Ralston合写的“Megaliths and mariners:experimental archaeology on Easter Island(Rapa Nui)”这篇论文被收录在K.L.Johnson编辑的Onward and Upward!Papers in Honor of Clement W.Meighan(University Press of America)。上面提到的后两篇论文描述了考古学家为了弄明白石像的雕刻、搬运过程和搬运时间所做的实验研究。

适合大众阅读的有关波利尼西亚聚落的好书很多,其中包括Patrick Kirch写的On the Road of the Winds:An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact(Berkeley:University of California Press, 2000)、The Lapita Peoples:Ancestors of the Oceanic World(Oxford:Blackwell, 1997),以及The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1984);Peter Bellwood写的The Polynesians:Prehistory of an Island People(修订版)(London:Thames and Hudson, 1987);Geoffrey Irwin的The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992)。David Lewis的We, the Navigators(Honolulu:University Press of Hawaii, 1972)对传统太平洋航海技术有独特的描述。作者本人是个现代航海家,他和仅存的尚在使用传统航海技术的土著们一起远航,以此研究传统的航海技术。Patrick Kirch和Terry Hunt共同编辑的Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands:Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change(New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1997)收录了多篇论文探讨在复活节岛等太平洋群岛上,人类对生态环境的影响。

Thor Heyerdahl的两本书引发了我和许多人对复活节岛的兴趣。一本是The Kon-Tiki Expedition(London:Alien & Unwin, 1950),还有一本是Aku-Aku:The Secret of Easter Island(London:Alien & Unwin, 1958)。Heyerdahl带考古学家们去复活节岛进行挖掘考察,因此对复活节岛有与众不同的诠释,见Thor Heyerdahl与E.Ferdon, Jr.共同编辑的Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific, vol.1:The Archaeology of Easter Island(London:Alien & Unwin, 1961)。Steven Fischer写的Glyph Breaker(New York:Copernicus,1997)和Rongorongo:The Easter Island Script(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1997)这两本描述了Fischer如何解读朗格朗格文字。Andrew Sharp编辑的The Journal of Jacob Roggeveen(London:Oxford University Press, 1970)reprints on pp.89-106有第一个来到复活节岛欧洲人的第一眼印象的描述。

Claudio Cristino、Patricia Vargas与R.Izaurieta合著的Atlas Arqueológico de Isia de Pascua(Santiago:University of Chile, 1981)复活节岛的考古研究做了一番总结。关于复活节岛,更详细的信息可以参看Easter Island Foundation定期出版的期刊Rapa Nui Journal,该基金会偶尔也出版关于复活节岛的研讨会论文集。重要的论文集有Claudio Cristino、Patricia Vargas等人编辑的First International Congress, Easter Island and East Polynesia, vol.1 Archaeology(Santiago:University of Chile, 1988);Patricia Vargas Casanova编辑的Easter Island and East Polynesia Prehistory(Santiago:University of Chile, 1998);还有Christopher Stevenson、William Ayres合编的Easter Island Archaeology:Research on Early Rapanui Culture(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2000)。有关不同文化碰触的历史可以参考Claudio Cristino等人的Isla de Pascua:Procesos, Alcances y Efectos de la Aculturación(Easter Island:University of Chile, 1984)。

David Steadman的鸟类骨头辨析报告以及在安纳克那海滩的考古发现见下面三篇论文:“Extinctions of birds in Eastern Polynesia:a review of the record, and comparisons with other Pacific Island groups”(Journal of Archaeological Science 16:177-205(1989))与“Stratigraphy, chronology, and cultural context of an early faunal assemblage from Easter Island”(Asian Perspectives 33:79-96(1994)),这两篇论文的合作者都是Patricia Vargas和Claudio Cristino;还有“Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific Island birds;biopersity meets zooarchaeology”(Science 267:1123-1131(1995))。William Ayres在“Easter Island subsistence”(Journal de la Sociétédes Océanistes 80:103-124(1985))一文中对于岛民的食物提供了更进一步的考古证据。针对复活节岛棕榈树消失之谜的解释和湖底沉积物样本的花粉研究见下列论文:J.R.Flenley 和Sarah King合写的“Late Quaternary pollen records from Easter Island”(Nature 307:47-50(1984));J.Dransfielf 等人写的“A recently extinct palm from Easter Island”(Nature 312:750-752(1984));以及J.R.Flenley等人共同发表的“The Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic history of Ester Island”(Journal of Quaternary Science 6:85-115(1991))。Catherine Orliac的研究结果见上述Stevenson与Ayres编辑的论文集,此外他还写了“Données nouvelles sur la composition de la flore de l'île de Paques”(Journal de la Société des Océanistes 2:23-31(1998))。关于Claudio Cristino和其同事所作的考古调查结果可见下列论文:Christopher Stevenson和Claudio Cristino 合作发表的“Residential settlement history of the Rapa Nui coastal plain”(Journal of New World Archaeology 7:29-38(986));Daris Swindler、Andrea Drusini与Claudio Cristino共同发表的“Variation and frequency of three-rotted first molars in precontact Easter Island:anthropological significance”(Journal of the Polynesian Society 106:175-183(1997));以及Claudio Cristino与Patricia Vargas共同发表的“Ahu Tongariki, Easter Island:chronological and sociopolitical significance”(Rapa Nui Journal 13:67-69(1999))。

Christopher Stevenson写的关于集约农业和石块护根法的论文集有Archaeological Investigations on Easter Island;Maunga Tari:An Upland Agriculture Complex(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 1995);以及与Joan Wozniak、Sonia Haoa共合作发表的“Prehistoric agriculture production on Easter Island(Rapa Nui), Chile”(Antiquity 73:801-812(1999));与Thegn Ladefoged、Sonia Haoa合作发表的“Productive strategies in an uncertain environment:prehistoric agriculture on Easter Island”(Rapa Nui Journal 16:17-22(2002))。Christopher Stevenson写的“Territorial pisions on Easter Island in the 16th century:evidence from the distribution of ceremonial architecture”被收录于T.Ladefoged和M.Graves共同编辑的Pacific Landscapes(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2002), pp.213-229,这篇论文重建了复活节岛上11个传统部落的地盘界线。

Dale Lightfoot的“Morphology and ecology of lithic-mulch agriculture”(Geographical Review 84:172-185(1994))和Carleton White等人发表的“Water conservation through an Anasazi gardening technique”(New Mexico Journal of Science 38:251-278(1998)),这两篇论文列出证据表明世界其他地区也使用石块护根法。Andreas Mieth与Hans-Rudolf Bork合作发表的“Diminution and degradation of environmental resources by prehistoric land use on Poike Peninsula, Easter Island(Rapa Nui)”(Rapa Nui Journal 17:34-41(2003))探讨了珀伊克半岛上滥伐森林及土壤侵蚀的情况。Karsten Haase等人发表的“The petrogenetic evolution of lavas from Easter Island and neighboring seamounts, near-ridge hotspot volcanoes in the S.E.Pacific”(Journal of Petrology 38:785-813(1997))对复活节岛火山的形成年代和化学成分进行了分析。Erika Hagelberg等人发表的“DNA from ancient Easter Islanders”(Nature 369:25-26(1994))对12个复活节岛民的骨骸做了DNA分析报告。James Brander和M.Scott Taylor共同发表的论文“The simple economics of Easter Island:a Ricardo-Malthus model of renewable resource use”(American Economic Review 38:119-138(1998))则是从经济学的角度来分析复活节岛资源过度开发的情形。