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《崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡》第五章

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针对马雅文明的陨落,三本新出版的书提出了各自不同的看法:David Webster的The Fall of the Ancient Maya(New York: Thames and Hudson, 2002)、Richardson Gill的The Great Maya Droughts(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 2000)以及Arthur Demerest、Prudence Rice和Don Rice一起编辑的The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands(Boulder:University Press of Colorado, 2004)。Webster综合概括了马雅社会的历史,从人口和资源分配的角度解释了马雅崩溃的原因;Gill则把重点放在气候变化上,认为是旱灾引起了马雅的崩溃;而Demerest等人则强调各遗址间错综复杂的差异,对于生态方面的变因很少关注。关于这些方面的早期讨论见T.Patrick Culbert编辑的The Classic Maya Collapse(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1973)以及T.Patrick Culbert 和D.S.Rice合编的Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands(Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1990)。David Lentz编辑的Imperfect Balance:Landscape Transformation in the Precolumbian Americas(New York:Columbia University Press, 2000)一书中有好几个章节涉及马雅的崩溃,还探讨了其他相关族群,如生活在霍霍凯姆、安第斯山和密西西比地区的印第安人,本书对他们也略有提及。

有些书还总结了马雅地区某些特定城市的兴衰。如David Webster、Ann Corinne Freter和Nancy Gonlin合著的Copán:The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom(Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace, 2000);Peter Harrison的The Lords of Tikal(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Stephen Houston的Hieroglyphs and History at Dos Pilas(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1993);以及M.R.Dunning 的Lords of the Hills:Ancient Maya Settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatán, Mexico(Madison, Wis.:Prehistory Press, 1992)。关于马雅历史和社会的书籍(没有专门探讨崩溃问题)可参见Michael Coe的The Maya, 6th ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Simon Martin 和Nikolai Grube 的Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens(New York:Thames and Hudson, 2000);Robert Sharer的The Ancient Maya(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1994);Linda Schele与David Freidel合著的A Forest of Kings(New York:William Morrow, 1990);以及Linda Schele和Mary Miller的The Blood of Kings(New York:Braziller, 1986)。

John Stephens将自己的发现写在两本经典作品中:一本是Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1841);还有一本是Incidents of Travel in Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1843)。这两本书都由Dover Publication 重印。Victor Wolfgang von Hagen 在Maya Explorer(Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1984)一书中介绍了John Stephens的一生及其伟大的发现。

B.L.Turner Ⅱ在马雅集约化农业和人口方面出版了不少论文和书籍。它们有“Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan lowlands”(Science 185:118-124(1974));他与Peter Harrison共同发表的“Prehistoric raised-field agriculture in the Maya lowlands”(Science 213:399-405(1981));他们两人还合写了Pulltrouser Swamp:Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1983);Thomas Whitmore与B.L.Turner Ⅱ合作发表了“Landscapes of cultivation in Mesoamerica on the eve of the conquest”(Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:402-425(1992));以及B.L.Turner Ⅱ和K.W.Butzer合作发表的论文“The Columbian encounter and land-use change”(Environment 43:16-20 and 37-44(1992))。

最近发表的以湖芯研究作为马雅崩溃与干旱有关的证据的论文有Mark Brenner 等人写的“Paleolimnology of the Maya lowlands:long-term perspectives on interactions among climate, environment, and humans”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:141-157(2002))(同期值得关注的论文见pp.79-170 和 263-345);David Hodell 等人发表的 “Solar forcing of drought frequency in the Maya lowlands”(Science 292:1367-1370(2001));Jason Curtis等人发表的“Climate variability of the Yucatán Peninsula(Mexico)during the past 3500 years,and implications for Maya cultural evolution”(Quaternary Research 46:37-47(1996));以及David Hodell 等人合写的“Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization”(Nature 375:391-394(1995))。这些科学家专门在佩滕地区进行湖芯研究以了解干旱的影响,相关论文见Michael Rosenmeier写的“A 4000-year lacustrine record of environmental change in the southern Maya lowlands, Petén, Guatemala”(Quaternary Research 57:183-190(2002));以及Jason Curtis等人发表的“A multi-proxy study of Holocene environmental change in the Maya lowlands of Petén, Guatemala”(Journal of Paleolimnology 19:139-159(1998))。此外,Gerald Haug等人发表的“Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization”(Science 299:1731-1735(2003))也可供读者参考,文中科学家们通过对被河流冲积到海洋的沉积物进行分析,以了解每年雨量的变化。

对马雅文明感兴趣的读者请勿错过Mary Ellen Miller写的The Murals of Bonampak(Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1986),书中收录了很多壁画的图片,有黑白,也有彩色,还有酷刑的画面。Justin Kerr写的介绍马雅陶器的一系列书The Maya Vase Book(New York:Kerr Associates, various dates)也值得推荐。破解马雅文字的过程精彩纷呈,相关书籍有Michael Coe的Breaking the Maya Code,2nd ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999)以及Stephen Houston、Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazareigos和David Stuart合著的The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing(Norman:University of Oklahoma, 2001)。关于提卡尔的蓄水池,可参看下列文章:Vernon Scarborough与Gari Gallopin写的“A water storage adaptation in the Maya lowlands”(Science 251:658-662(1991));Lisa Lucero在其论文“The collapse of the Classic Maya:a case for the role of water control”(American Anthropologist 104:814-826(2002))中提出马雅各地区可用水量的差异导致马雅古典时期城市间崩溃时间的不同;Arturo Gómez-Pompa、JoséSalvador Flores和Victoria Sosa在他们的论文“The‘pet kot’:a man-made tropical forest of the Maya”(Interciencia 12:10-15(1987))中对马雅人培育有用树种进行了研究分析。Timothy Beach的研究报告“Soil catenas,tropical deforestation, and ancient and contemporary soil erosion in the Petén, Guatemala”(Physical Geography 19:378-405(1998))表现了马雅有些地区利用梯田来改善水土流失的情况。Richard Hansen等人写的“Climatic and environmental variability in the rise of Maya civilization:a preliminary perspective from northern Petén,”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:273-295(2002))一文用跨学科的研究方式对前古典时期人口稠密的地区进行分析,并证明石灰生产与森林砍伐之间的关系。