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《崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡》第六章至第八章

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William Fitzhugh 与Elisabeth Ward共同编辑的Vikings:The North Atlanta Saga(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000)内含许多彩色插图,全书共有31章,详细地介绍了维京社会、维京人在欧洲的扩张及维京人在北大西洋建立的殖民地。若要简明版的,可参阅Eric Christiansen写的The Norsemen in the Viking Age(Oxford:Blackwell, 2002)及F.Donald Logan写的The Vikings in History, 2nd ed.(New York:Routledge, 1991),还有Else Roestahl写的The Vikings(New York:Penguin, 1987)。Gwyn Jones的Vikings:The North Atlantic Saga, 2nd ed.(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1986)以及G.J.Marcus的The Conquest of the North Atlantic(New York:Oxford University Press, 1981)则把焦点放在维京人在冰岛、格陵兰岛和文兰等北大西洋殖民地的发展情况。Jones在书中还收录了维京英雄们传奇故事的英译,其中有冰岛人之书、文兰英雄传奇和Einar Sokkason的故事。

关于冰岛历史,最近出版的两本书值得一看。一本是Jesse Byock的Viking Age Iceland(New York:Penguin Putnam, 2001), 这本书是以他以前写的Medieval Iceland:Society, Sagas, and Present(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1988)一书为基础写就的,对冰岛的介绍止于邦联时期(1262—1264);还有一本是Gunnar Karlsson的Iceland's 1100 Years:The History of a Marginal Society(London:Hurst, 2000),不仅涵盖了冰岛的中古时期,还涉及现代冰岛部分。在Judith Maizels与Chris Caseldine编辑的Environmental Change in Iceland, Past and Present(Dordrecht:Kluwer, 1991)一书中,收录了多位作者的文章,专门研究冰岛环境史。Kirsten Hastrup在Island of Anthropology:Studies in Past and Present Iceland(Viborg:Odense University Press, 1990)中收录了自己写的以冰岛为主题的人类学研究报告。The Sagas of Icelanders:A Selection(New York:Penguin, 1997)一书中有17篇维京人的英译传奇故事(内有2篇文兰传奇),这些故事选自五卷本的The Complete Sagas of Icelanders(Reykjavík:Leifur Eiriksson, 1997)。

有两篇论文论及冰岛的景观变化:Andrew Dugmore等人发表的 “Tephrochronology, environmental change and the Norse settlement of Iceland”(Environmental Archaeology 5:21-34(2000)),和Ian Simpson等人的论文“Crossing the thresholds:human ecology and historical patterns of landscape degradation”(Catena 42:175-192(2001))。由于每种昆虫对于栖息地和气候条件的要求都不相同,Paul Buckland与其同事通过对从考古遗址中保存下来的昆虫做研究,找出环境指标。他们的研究报告有Gudrún Sveinbjarnardóttir等人发表的“Landscape change in Eyjafjallasveit,Southern Iceland”(Norsk Geog, Tidsskr 36:75-88(1982));Paul Buckland等人发表的“Late Holocene palaeoecology at Ketilsstadir in Myrdalur, South Iceland”(Jökull 36:41-5(1986));Paul Buckland等人发表的“Holt in Eyjafjallasveit, Iceland:a paleoecological study of the impact of Landnám”(Acta Archaeologica 61:252-271(1991)):Gudrún Sveinbjarnardóttir等人发表的“Shielings in Iceland:an archaeological and historical survey”(Acta Archaeologica:61:74-96(1991));Paul Buckland等人写的“Palaeoecological investigations at Reykholt, Western Iceland,”收录于C.D.Morris与D.J.Rackhan编辑的Norse and Later Settlement and Subsistence in the North Atlantic(Glasgow:Glasgow University Press, 1992), pp.149-168;Colleen Batey等人编辑的The Viking Age in Caithness, Orkney and the North Atlantic(Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1993)书中收录了Paul Buckland等人合写的论文“An insect's eye-view of the Norse farm,”pp.518-528。还有Kevin Edwards等人发表的“Landscapes at Landnám:palynological and palaeoentomological evidence from Toftanes,Faroe Islands”(Fródskaparrit 46:177-192(1998))同样以昆虫为切入点,以了解法罗群岛气候变化。

关于维京人在格陵兰的发展,下面两本书里有详细的资料:Kirsten Seaver写的The Frozen Echo:Greenland and Exploration of North America ca.A.D.1000-1500(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1996);以及Finn Gad写的The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅰ:Earliest Times to 1700(Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press, 1971)。Finn Gad其后又写了一本The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅱ:1700-1782(Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press, 1973),探讨了格陵兰岛再次为世人发现和丹麦人在此殖民的情形。Niels Lynnerup在他的专著The Greenland Norse:A Biologic-Anthropological Study(Copenhagen:Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland, 1998)里对格陵兰出土的维京人的骨骸进行了分析。至于因纽特人在格陵兰以及在他们之前来到格陵兰发展的美洲土著,下面两本文集可供参考:Martin Appelt与Hans Christian Gullóv等人编辑的Late Dorset in High Arctic Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1999)和Martin Appelt等人编辑的Identities and Cultural Contacts in the Arctic(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 2000)。Jens Peder Hart Hansen等人编辑的The Greenland Mummies(London:British Museum Press, 1991)详细描述了在格陵兰出土的因纽特人的尸体,其中有六个女人、一个孩子和一个婴儿。这些人大约埋葬于1475年,由于格陵兰气候干冷,使得这些尸体和衣服没有腐烂,保存完好。该书封面就是那个六个月死婴的脸部照片,让人难以忘怀。

近20年来,关于维京人在格陵兰的考古遗址,最重要的两个系列研究出自Thomas McGovern和 Jette Arneborg 及他们的同事。McGovern的论文有“The Vinland adventure:a North Atlantic perspective”(North American Archaeologist 2:285-308(1985));Thomas McGovern的“Contributions to the paleoeconomy of the Norse Greenland”(Acta Archaeologica 54:73-122(1985));Thomas McGovern等人合写的“Northern islands, human era, and environmental degradation:a view of social and ecological change in the medieval North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 16:225-270(1988));Thomas McGovern写的“Climate, correlation, and causation in Norse Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 28:77-100(1991));Thomas McGovem等人合写的“A vertebrate zooarchaeology of Sandnes V51:economic change at a chieftain's farm in West Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 33:94-121(1996));Thomas Amorosi等人写的“Raiding the landscape:human impact from the Scandinavian North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 25:491-518(1997));以及Tom Amorosi等人合写的“They did not live by grass alone:the politics and paleoecology of animal fodder in the North Atlantic region”(Environmental Archaeology Ⅰ:41-54(1998))。Arneborg的论文包括Jette Arneborg的“The Roman church in Norse Greenland”(Acta Archaeologica 61:142-150(1990))和“Contact between Eskimos and Norsemen in Greenland:a review of the evidence”。第二篇论文被收录于Tvaerfaglige Vikingesymposium(Aarhus, Denmark:Aarhus University, 1993), pp.23-35;还有论文“Burgundian caps, Basques and dead Norsemen at Herjolfsnaes Greenland”收录在Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark(Copenhagen:Nationalmuseet, 1996), pp.75-83。还有Jette Arneborg等人合作发表的 “Change of diet of the Greenland Vikings determined from stable carbon isotope analysis and 14C dating of their bones”(Radiocarbon 41:157-168(1999))。由Arneborg 与她的同事们在格陵兰西聚落厚沙层下挖掘出著名的遗址“沙下农场”。在Jette Arneborg 和Hans Christian Gullóv合作编辑的论文集Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1998)中收录了一些关于沙下农场等遗址的论文。C.L .Vebaek也在Meddelelser om Grónland, Man and Society, Copenhagen上发表了三篇论文(编号为14、17、18(1991、1992、1993)),描述他从1945年到1962年在格陵兰的考古研究:The Church Topography of the Eastern Settlement and the Excavation of the Benedictine Convent at Narsarsuaq in the Uunartoq Fjord;Vatnahverfi:An Inland District of the Eastern Settlement in Greenland;以及Narsaq:A Norse Landnáma Farm

关于维京人在格陵兰的其他论文还有如下几篇:Robert McGhee发表的 “Contact between Native North Americans and the medieval Norse:a review of the evidence”(American Antiquity 49:4-26(1984));Joel Berglund的“The decline of the Norse settlements in Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 23:109-135(1986));Svend Albrethsen与Christian Keller合作发表的“The use of the saeter in medieval Norse farming in Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 23:91-107(1986));Christian Keller的“Vikings in the West Atlantic:a model of Norse Greenlandic medieval society”(Acta Archaeologica 61:126-141(1990));Bent Fredskild的论文“Agriculture in a marginal area:South Greenland from the Norse landnam(1985 A.D.)to the present 1985 A.D.,”收录于Hilary Birks等人编辑的The Cultural Landscape:Past,Present and Future(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp.381-393;Bent Fredskild的论文“Erosion and vegetational changes in South Greenland caused by agriculture”(Geografisk Tidsskrift 92:14-21(1992));还有Bjarne Jakobsen的“Soil resources and soil erosion in the Norse Settlement area of Østerbygden in southern Greenland”(Acta Borealia 1:56-68(1991))。